Áksiá(ga), usually pronounced as Aksi(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the third daughter. Inasmuch as all third daughters are named Aksia(ga), the name is often used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt 1] The name derives from áksiáka, the name given to a dead or tame bear. [nt 2] See Haga(ga). Examples: 1.

American Swallow-tail Kite - Elanoides forficatus, illustrated at left, is said to be the black hawk [keredjû´sep] (for which, see Great Black Hawk). Its most recognizable feature is its forked tail (Latin, forficatus). The bird is about two feet in length and both sexes are the same black and white color. [nt 1] "This bird [is] one of the most exquisite creatures alive ..." [nt 2] As the name suggests, this kite has the most forked tail of all raptors, which gives the kite aerodynamic powers that make it "the most aerial of our birds of prey." [nt 3] It is the most aerobatic and graceful of all birds, as it seldom flies in a straight line, but inscribes graceful turns and dips as if showing off its skill. It feeds mainly on insects, lizards, snakes, and other reptiles, but never attacks small birds. Its habitat is near water in swamps, river bottoms, and the shores of lakes. It builds nests in the upper branches of high trees with twigs and occasional moss lining. It usually lays two eggs, but sometimes as many as four, which run from white to beige in color with chestnut splotches on the larger ends. [nt 1] In one story its cry is said to be kik-kik.

anthropophagy -- the eating of human flesh whether by other humans or animals.

arbor vitæ (Thuja occidentalis), or white cedar -- a small tree [inset] that grows as far west as Minnesota. The leaves of the tree are arranged on a flat twig-like scales, so that the twig is often mistaken for a leaf. The twigs have a pleasant aromatic odor. Its cones are very small. [nt] It is the same as white cedar which the Hotcâgara call waziparasge, "broad pine." [nt] See also, red cedar. Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4.

Astronomy Terms:

conjunction -- a state of affairs in which a celestial body gets close enough to the sun that it can no longer be seen. For the inner planets, Mercury and Venus, inferior conjunction occurs when the planet disappears by passing between the earth and the sun. The conjunction of the moon resembles that of inferior conjunction. For all planets, superior conjunction occurs when the planet disappears by passing behind the sun.
dichotomy -- that phase of the moon or interior planet in which just half of its face is illuminated. For an interior planet, this occurs midway between inferior and superior conjunctions.
matutine -- pertaining to the morning, specifically rising in or just before the dawn. Matutine Mercury, the morning star period of the planet Mercury.
vespertine -- pertaining to the evening, specifically, setting with or just after the sun. Vespertine Mercury, the evening star period of the planet Mercury.

autophagy -- eating oneself.

bobwhite -- another name for a quail or partridge. In America, both names are for members of the genus Colinus.

calendar stick (namâcgócge) [picture] -- regular astronomical processes were recorded by incised marks on sticks for the purpose of calculating time. [nt] See The Twins Get into Hot Water, Blue Bear, Moon, Jipson's List of Moons, and Tcizanhaka in A Gallery of Hotcâk Notables.

chiastic, chiasmus -- a form of literary composition in which ideas or themes are set out in a concentric pattern of "frames", such as ABCBA. In other words, the themes initially set out are repeated in reverse order. The following Farewell Song is so constructed:

A. [War whoop]
B. I think that he would speak the truth.
C. To these warleaders, he has something that he says.
B. I think that he would speak the truth.
A. [War whoop]

Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4.

coincidentia oppositorum -- the coincidence (co-instantiation) of opposites. Man can be thought of as the coincidence of the opposites of flesh and spirit, for instance.

Cranes -- Petca, the word for cranes in Hotcâk, may have a wider denotation than its conventional English translation, but we know that it does at least encompass "tall, blue birds" such as the Sandhill Crane pictured at right. [nt] See Crane.

cûk-hit'énâxgû (shoonk heet AY nach goon) -- someone who understands the language of dogs. From cûk, "dog," hit'e, "language," and naxgû, "to understand." [nt] See Canine Warrior, The Dogs of the Chief's Son, Wolf & Dog Spirits.

Curlew -- the bird pictured at left is the Hudsonian Curlew (Numenius hudsonicus). This bird is mentioned in the waikâ The Markings on the Moon, where it is called the "Moon Looker," a conception reflected in its scientific name, which means "new moon." They vary from 18 inches to two feet in length. The two sexes are alike with a basic brown plumage. It lays three or four eggs on the ground in grass lined depressions. It prefers wet areas as its habitat, although the Long-billed Curlew seems to seek food in drier areas. Because of their long, curved beaks, larger curlews are often mistaken for ibises. [nt]

Death Dance -- a dance performed before going on the warpath. It is also known as the "Farewell Dance." [nt] When a warleader wants to summon men to join in a warpath, he dances through the village singing various Farewell Songs, or the "Death-Doing Songs" (T'e'ûra Nâwâra). He calls out for men to join him, and those who wish to join follow him through the village. Those who have joined the warparty tell all the people who have assembled how the Old Ones had urged them to die in battle and to win war honors. Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4 . This name is also given to the Prisoner's Dance.

Death Song -- a song sung by someone whose death is upon him. It is often sung by a prisoner who is being tortured to death. See Prisoner's Dance. Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (Captured One's Song).

dotcâhûka -- a warleader, specifically, the leader of a war party. [nt]

Dream (hâde) -- a vision people receive when they are blessed by the spirits; or the blessing itself. Linguistic notes: 1. Commentary: 1. Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26.

Exclamations:

A -- in most cases, it is an exclamation associated with the rejection of a suggestion, as in "bah"; but in one case, the exclamation is translated as "ah" as in English, expressing pleasant surprise. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Âhâ -- probably a version of Hâhâ´, indicating surprise. Used: 1.
Ânâ -- Ouch! (Lipkind)
Arú -- Ouch! (Lipkind)
Bo -- an exclamation of derision. Used: 1.
Búa -- an exclamation expressing scepticism and sarcasm. Used: 1.
C -- said in order to drive away a cat or chickens (Lipkind)
Ci -- translated as "Say there!" (Lipkind). Used: 1.
C'ia'´ -- used to scold someone. (Lipkind)
Dja -- an expression of surprise, which basically means, "What?". It appears to be a shorter form of djaha below. Used: 1.
Dja-a -- an expression of surprise, an enlongated form of dja. Used: 1.
Djaha, Djáha-á -- apparently an expression of intense surprise. In one instance (10), it is translated as, "What's the matter?" Probably from dja, "What?" (cf. djagu). Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.
Djatcâ´jé -- expression of surprise (used by women) [Miner]. However, in one case it is used by the father of the Twins. See Tc'âtc'âjé. Used: 1.
Duwî -- a cry of pain, translated as "Ouch!". Used: 1, 2, 3.
Ehé -- translated as "Oh!", in the context of an appalling surprise. Used: 1, 2.
Ehó, ehó! Wehá, wehá! -- shouted by a Medicine Rite member when he reaches the summit of a certain hill in the afterlife. Used: 1.
Guwa -- an interjection, judging from its context, that expresses extreme annoyance and indignation. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Gwo (or guó) -- Radin says "guo! has a number of distinct uses but, more specifically, it is used to express despair, and utter helplessness." [nt] Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Ha, Hâ -- translated by the English "ah," as in, "Ah, now I understand," or as an expression of contentment; once translated as "now" (#11). It can also be used in affirmation (see ##13, 14). Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16..
Ha-a -- apparently an expression of contentment. No doubt an emphatic form of Ha, above. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Hâ-â (with falling pitch on the echoed vowel) -- indicates attention (Lipkind)
Hâ-â-â-â (long drawn out with a wide pitch movement), often written Hâ -- Is that so? (Lipkind) Used: 1, 2, 3, 4.
Hagaga'askéjâ -- this has the same meaning as hagagasgejâ, hagagasgeijâ, etc. (Lipkind)
Hagagasgé -- translated as "Oh my." See the next entry. Used: 1, 2.
Hagagasgeijâ -- see hagagasgejâ below. Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
Hagagasgejâ -- "Alas, has it ever happened thus?" or "O my, thus it has been." Radin calls it "an expression of distress." Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9.
Hagagaskejâ -- a variant of hagaga'askéjâ, hagagasgé, etc. Used: 8.
Hagagasgéjâxdjî -- an emphatic form of hagaga'askéjâ of the previous entry. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Hagáwajâ -- translated as "O dear". Used: 1.
Hagawajâgasge -- translated as, "What a great thing, wonderful". See hagáwajâ, and hagagasgé. Used: 1.
Haghó -- an expression of disgust. Probably the same as Hoxhó (q.v. below). (Lipkind)
Hâhá -- probably a variant of Hâhâ´, Hahó, and Hâhó (qv). Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Hâhâ´ -- usually translated as "Well ..." or "Now then." Its primary sense is "yes." Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47.
Hâhâ'â -- an emphatic form of Hâhâ ("yes" or "well"). Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.
Hâháo, Hâhaó, Hâhâ´o -- sometimes an expression of alarm translated as, "O no!". On the other hand, in other contexts it seems to mean the same as hâho (see 1, 2). Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.
Hahé -- an exclamation of pain. Used: 1.
Hahó, Hâhó -- usually translated as "Well ..." May be a variant of Hâhâ and Hâhá (qv). Used: 1, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49.
Hâho -- "hear, hear!" (indication of an audience's approval), or "all right" = Ho (Lipkind). Used in this sense: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Hâhó -- translated as "Oh my!" or "Alas". Used in this sense: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Hâhó égi -- "well then". Used: 1.
Haho kara -- used to express wonder. Used: 1.
Hâhó kodé -- rendered as "now then". Used: 1, 2.
Hâhoí -- an (emphatic?) version of Hâhó, Hahó (etc.). Used: 1.
Hâhó-o-o-o -- a sustained form of hâhó, "I great you". Used: 1.
Hahowo -- translated as "Oh!" in a context of alarm. (Probably from ha-howo.) Used: 1.
Hahú -- Radin says that it is an "utterance used as a signal before running, like Engines ready!." Used: 1, 2, 3.
Hañká-a -- an emphatic "no," rather like "no way!"
Há-o -- probably an emphatic form of Ha. Used: 1.
Hehé -- according to Lipkind, it is an exclamation uttered in response to something pleasing. However, it is also used in the context of reporting a murder, and in a couple of places is translated as "alas." Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
Hehehiá -- an expression of weariness or relaxation. This is said by men only. (Lipkind) Radin describes it as an "exclamation of relief." Used: 1.
Heho -- an exclamation apparently meaning something like "well, then!" Mentioned: 1.
Herucgara -- an exclamation used in parallel with kora in a context of difficulties. Used: 1.
Hic -- "Damn! at a minor annoyance or an unreasonable request." (Lipkind)
Hicdjâ´ge -- translated as "well" or "well then." Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.
Hi'ic -- Is that so? (Lipkind)
Hihí -- exclaimed after relating an ill-omened dream. Used: 1.
Hiho -- translated as "alright". Used: 1, 2.
Hmmm - an expression of concentrated thought, as in English. Almost certainly the same as Hû-m-m (q.v. below). Used: 1.
Ho -- this exclamation is fundamentally an emphatic affirmation. However, there are times when it is just an expression of intense emotion. Lipkind gives it the value, "Hear, hear!" (indication of an audience's approval). In this sense it is the same as Hâho (qv).
Ho-o-o -- a very emphatic version of ho. In one case it is translated as "how terrible!"
Hodjâ´ -- a word ordinarily meaning, "yes, all right", but when used as an exclamation it is often translated as "well!". Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Hogí -- an exclamation translated as, "Well". Used: 1.
Hohó -- an expression of strong emotion, either positive or negative. In some cases (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) it seems to mean, "Alas!"
Hohoho -- an emphatic form of hohó. Used: 1, 2.
Hohohowá -- an expression of weariness or relaxation. (Lipkind) It is also said to be "an expression of relief." However, it is consistent with a state of alarm. (Probably from hohó-howá.) Used: 1, 2, 3, 4.
Hoho-o, an emphatic form of Hohó. Used: 1.
Hohowá -- an expression of sadness or regret. (Lipkind)
Howá -- in several cases it is an expression of affirmation translated as "all right," but in others it is used to express consternation. Emphatic forms, Howaá and Howo. Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Howe -- an expression essentially synonymous with "ho" (see above). Used: 1.
Howo -- an emphatic variant of Howá, often translated as "all right." In one story (9, 10), it is described as a "grunt of impatience". Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11..
Hoxhó -- a rare exclamation, said when by a man when his sons put their lives in unnecessary jeopardy. No doubt the same as Haghó (q.v. above). Used: 1.
Hu -- perhaps the original form of Huhú. Used: 1.
Hû-û -- perhaps a spelling variant of Hâ-â. Used: 1.
Huhú -- probably a variant of Huhú-i below. Used: 1, 2, 3, 4.
Huhú-i -- an expression of surprise.(Lipkind) Used: 1.
Hû-m-m -- apparently an expression of understanding as in "I see." This is no doubt the same as Hmmm (q.v. above). Used. 1.
Huré, huré-e, or huré'â'â -- an expression of glee (?). It might derive from the American English, "hooray." Hu-re is also an imperative in Hotcâk meaning "come on, come here." Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Hûsgé -- translated as "well". Used: 1.
Hwic -- "Damn! at a minor annoyance or an unreasonable request." (Lipkind)
Jijijjíji -- "here, here, here!" Used: 1.
K'ajó -- an emphatic denial, translated as "no sir!" or "no siree". Used: 1.
Kará (also k'ara) -- translated by LaMère as "Listen!" and as "Say." In some contexts it is similar to the English "Good God!". Probably a variation of Korá (qv below).
K'arésgexdjî -- an emphatic exclamation made when the Fox believed that their chiefs had been murdered. Probably a fusion of K'ará with Hagagasgé appended with the emphatic suffix -xdjî. Used: 1.
K'aró -- an exclamation usually translated as "well ..."
Karoho(ra) -- apparently an exclamation, perhaps an extention of K'aró with the addition of Hohó. Used: 1, 2.
Kodé, or k'oté -- expresses wonder or surprise. Used by men only. In Nineteenth Century translations, it is often rendered as "Say!". Lipkind translates it as, "Listen!"
Kodedja -- an exclamation translated as "well". Used: 1.
Korá, also, k'orá -- usually translated as "Well!" Lipkind says that it expresses wonder, surprise, and awe. It is used by men only. However, it often seems to occur in contexts of anger, so it is rather more like a swear word.
Koragá -- translated as "say". Apparently an extension of Korá. Used: 1.
Náîxdjî -- translated as "I hope" and described by Radin as a "sort of exclamation." Used: 1.
Nijí -- translated as "say" (and in one case, "what a fellow!"), it can be used by either men or women. Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
Nik'á -- an expression of wonder or surprise. Used by women only. (Lipkind) Used: 1.
Nîk'até, Nikate -- "Try and get me to do it!" in answer to a request. Used by women only. (Lipkind) Used: 1, 2.
Psiu, or psu -- Phew! (at an unpleasant odor). (Lipkind)
Niñgécge -- translated as "O well" (see 1); but it is also used in an exhuberant and celebratory context (see 2). Used: 1, 2.
O -- apparently much like its English equivalent, as in "O woe is me!" Used: 1.
Owí -- an exclamation of uncertain meaning. Perhaps it expresses a reaction to a bad odor. Used: 1.
Si -- said in order to drive a dog away (Lipkind)
Skirík' -- used in teasing or to express disapproval. (Lipkind)
Tcak'ó -- translated as "Well!" with some overtones of indignation. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Tc'âtc'âjé -- exclamation of surprise, used only by women [Susman]. See Djatcâ´jé.
Tuwí -- Ouch! See Duwî. (Lipkind)
Ûeské -- an expression of hesitation while the speaker searches for the right word. (Lipkind); given as 'ûské by Susman.
Ûha -- translated as "well ..." it also expresses some measure of affirmation. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Û´sge -- "Exclamation used when puzzled or discontented." [nt] Used: 1, 2, 3, 4.
Wa -- What?! (Lipkind)
Wanâ´ -- an expression of wonder or surprise. Used by women only. (Lipkind) Used: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
Waná-â! -- an emphatic version of wanâ. Used: 1.
Wahó-o-o -- an expression of amazement. (Lipkind)
Wajônokóna -- translated as "how terrible!" Mentioned: 1.
Warok'óno, Warokânâ -- an expression of strong doubt. (Lipkind) Used: 1, 2.
Warokânâji -- a variant of warokânâ, with the dubitive suffix -ji added to heighten the skepticism. Used: 1.
Waú -- an expression of strong emotion, good or bad. It is used only by women. Used: 1, 2, 3.
Wée -- an expression of outrage. Used: 1.
Werakirakúni -- an expression of amazement. Also, uwoírakírakúni, wairakírakuni, wárakirakáni, wérakírakúni (1, 2, 3, 4), wirakirakúni, woírakírakúni (1, 2, 3, 4).
Weyi -- an exclamation translated as "yes". Used: 1.
Wirak'í -- an expression of surprise used only by women.
Witá -- "Of all the nerve!" Said only by women. (Lipkind)
Wo -- "a word used when a man is puzzled or disconcerted." (LaMère-Radin) In one case it is used before the question, "What are you doing?" Used: 1, 2, 3, 4.
Woná -- probably a variant of Wanâ´. Used: 1.
Wuo -- an expression of perplexity and alarm. Used: 1.
Yohó -- an expression of enthusiasm and excitement at winning a prize. Probably an emphatic form of an unattested Yohá. Used: 1.
Yuhú -- said four or five times in succession by characters in a story who are begining their Death Dance. Used: 1.

Farewell Dance -- see "Death Dance".

Fast Eating Contest (Warudjosagi) -- a ritual in which the participants attempt to eat their food as fast as they can. This is done at a special meal given to members of a warparty before they leave on their expedition. The purpose of the rite is to insure that no enemy vouchsafed to the warparty by the spirits can succeed in escaping. If any item of food is not consumed, it indicates that one of the enemy will escape death or capture. Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; see also 7, 8.

friendship relation -- a strong bond of (Platonic) affection between two males. This bond is equal to that between uncles and nephews, so that if one friend (hîtcokoro) were to be killed in action, the surviving friend would be obliged to die with him. Friendship relations are also maintained among clans, using that between individuals as its paradigm.

Gicoknuxgiga -- for the meaning of this proper name, see cox, "heap, pile, hump" and nûx, "rear, side." [nt]

girigirisege -- probably from kirikiric, "spotted." [nt] This is for kirikirisge, the pigeon hawk.

gorget -- a necklace containing a small plate-like ornament that usually hangs between the throat the the breast.

grass widows -- apparently a term denoting young women who have been widowed by the premature death of their husbands. Examples: 1, 2.

Hága(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the third son. Inasmuch as all third sons are named Haga(ga), the name can be used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt 1] It derives from the name given to a dead or tame male bear (see Áksiáka). [nt 2] Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

hâp -- literally, "light." In the Medicine Rite, where it is a technical term denoting life, it is often translated by Radin as "light-and-life." Examples: 1, 2, 3.

he -- Hotcâk for "louse." Cf. Biloxi, ane, Ofo ô´yi. [nt]

Héna(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the second son. Inasmuch as all second sons are named Hena(ga), the name is often used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt] Examples: 1,, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.

hetcgenîk -- 1. chipmunk. 2. the nit or head louse. [nt]

hiciké -- husband of a sister; husband of a paternal sister; or husband of a daughter of a brother. Examples: 1.

higighára (also higixara, gighára) -- the pattern, established in advance, in which a warparty will set up for the night. [nt] Mentioned: 1.

Hinu(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the first born daughter. Inasmuch as all first daughters are named Hinu(ga), the name is often used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt] Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4.

Hîtcoga -- "Blue (or Green) Fur," (see tco) a birth order name within the Wolf Clan for the first (or perhaps the third) born daughter. [nt] The was the name of the second primordial wolf brother who founded the Wolf Clan. It is also the name given to the heroine of the waikâ The Wild Rose.

hitcûjâk' -- daughter of a brother or sister; daughter of a paternal sister; daughter of a son or daughter; daughter of a son of a paternal sister or a maternal brother. Examples: 1, 2.

ho -- 1. Hotcâk "fish." It is an almost pan-Siouan word: Osage, ho, hu; Sioux, ho, hoghâ´, meaning "fish(-net)"; Ofo, ho; Biloxi, o. [nt] 2. Hotcâk "voice." The following are Siouan cognates: Sioux ho, "the voice either of a man or of any animal or thing; sound in general"; Osage ho-, hu-, "voice, sound, etc.," Ponca, ho, "voice"; Omaha, hu, "voice"; Ofo, hóhe, "to bellow (like a bull), to howl (like a wolf)." [nt]

Hok'ixére Waci -- the name probably means, "Dance to Overtake the Enemy." After a scalp or head is brought back by a warparty, it is placed in the center of a lodge. Rites are conducted with respect to the scalp, and conclude with an all night dance, the Hok'ixére Waci. It is said that the dancers trample upon the soul of the scalp, and thereby induce it to give to them all the things that it would have acquired in life had it not reached a premature end in battle. [nt] Mentioned: 1.

Honâra Djobohôra -- the "Four Slumbers" or the Four Nights Wake, often simply called "the Slumbers" (Honâra). [nt]

Hotonga -- probably a symbolic pun playing upon the Hotcâk Ho-t'û-ga, literally, "He who Throws Away [His Life]," meaning, "kamakazee; warrior"; and the Ponca Ho-tôga, "Winnebago," a translation of the Winnebago name for themselves, Hotcâgara ("Great Voice"). See the commentary to the waikâ, The White Flower.

hot'û -- "one who throws away [his life]." The word can generally mean, "warrior," but more specifically it denotes the Hotcâk devotio or kamakazee, a warrior who pledges to give up his life by attacking the enemy in battle until they slay him. [nt] Mentioned: 1, 2.

Interjections. See Exclamations.

Jack Pine (wazíhuntcge, "bear pine") -- The needles of this tree are always found in pairs, arranged in a forked pattern. The cones are invariably curled and may not open for years on end. [nt]

juniper -- see red cedar.

kinnikinnick (Hotcâk roxî´cutckéra, "bark to smoke") -- a concoction of bark and certain plant leaves usually mixed with tobacco and used in pipe smoking.

korotc -- "I win." This is always declared by the victor in any contest. [nt]

Kúnu(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the first born son. Inasmuch as all first born males are named Kunu(ga), the name is often used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt] Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23.

Mä´näbush -- the Menominee trickster, very similar to the Hotcâk Trickster Wak'junk'aga. However, unlike Wak'junk'aga, his form is that of a rabbit.

Manitoo, Manito, Manido -- Algonquian terms for a spirit.

Mânuserek -- the mound constructed for the Buffalo Dance (cp. mâ, "earth," and serek, "to cut through.") [nt] Mentioned: 1, 2.

moieties -- the two grand divisions of Hotcâk society that consist of a set of clans having special relationships to one another. The Upper, or Sky, Moiety is made up of the four bird clans, Thunderbird, Hawk (Wonéghire Uángcik), Eagle, and Pigeon; and the Lower, or Earth, Moiety, which consists of the eight remaining clans, Waterspirit, Bear, Buffalo, Deer, Elk, Wolf, Snake, and Fish. With the exception of the Wolf Clan, all marriages were with someone from a different moiety. For the waikâ of the foundation of the moieties, see Moiety Origin Myth.

muskeg -- a word borrowed from the Cree language denoting a wet land of decaying vegetation usually covered by a layer of moss. Mentioned: 1.

Nángxi(ga), Nâxi(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the fourth son. Inasmuch as all fourth sons are named Nángxi(ga), the name is often used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt] Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Nâzigega -- a personal name (-ga) from nâzik, "muskie." [nt]

oval lodge (tci porokeijâ) -- a rounded lodge depicted above, the left drawing showing the frame (tciha cerek) while under construction.

Partridge -- in America the partridge is the same as the quail, also known as the "bobwhite."

Prisoner's Dance (Wâgenîke-î Waci) -- also known as the Death Dance, is a dance that condemned prisoners are made to perform before they are put to death, usually by torture. The prisoner's arms are tied just above the elbows behind his back, but the wrists are tied together in front of his body. A gourd rattle is placed in his right hand, and a sacred goad is placed in the other hand. His ankles are tied with a rope so that he can only take small steps. He then dances through the village while singing a Death Song, usually of a defiant character. After this dance is over, they put him to death. Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4.

Quail (Partridge or Bobwhite) -- the bird pictured at right is the bobwhite, Colinus virginianus (see The Quail Hunter). Its alternative name, "bobwhite," is imitative of its call. In America any bird of the genus Colinus is also known as a "partridge" (see Partridge and Partridge's Older Brother). It is most commonly found in fields, especially those with brush cover and thick weed patches, which this essentially ground-dwelling bird uses to hide from predators. It eats insects and plant seeds. Quails lay ten to twenty eggs in patches of thick grass. [nt]

red cedar -- called waxcútc, "red cedar," in Hotcâk. It is the same as juniper [inset left]. Its smoke is used extensively in purification ceremonies. The Thunders especially favor it, and use it as a coronet. See also, arbor vitæ (white cedar). Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14.

ruhîtc -- a reverential expression used extensively in ceremonies, performed by slowly raising the outstretched right arm before the face of the person being greeted. [nt]

Soteriological -- Pertaining to soteriology, the study, or process, of salvation, particularly the salvation of human beings from death.

Spanioraga -- Hotcâk for "Spaniard."

sweat lodge -- a lodge, usually of oval construction type, that can be quickly erected for the purposes of creating a steam bath. For a picture of the frame of such a lodge, see "Sweat Lodge Gif"; for an account of a recent sweat lodge ceremony among the Mâka Hotcâgara, see "Ho Chunk Meeting.". Mentioned: 1, 2.

Tca-si-gû-nâx-ka.-- translated as "He Who Eats the Stinking Part of the Deer Ankle." From tca, "deer"; si (spelled 'zihi' = 'si'), "foot"; gû (spelled 'go n'), "desire"; nâx, "stink"; with -ka indicating a personal name. [nt]

tco -- a color of the spectrum running from green through blue. Both pine needles and the sky are tco. This corresponds to Osage, to(-ho), Sioux, so, Biloxi tohi; Ofo, ithóhi. Hidatsa, tohi, Crow, cúa. Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14.

t'ijâ (< t'é-hijâ) -- "one who is dead," from t'e, "to die," and hijâ, "one." [nt]

tussock -- a small area of grass that is thicker or longer than the grass growing around it. Tussocks are found in meadows in Hotcâk territory, as it says here:

Throughout eastern Wisconsin, and extending eastward to the Atlantic seaboard, is a type of sedge meadow ... characterized by numerous tussocks (figs. I, 3), formed by sedges with the caespitose habit, which reach a height of 1-3 feet and which are separated by passages 1-4 feet wide. In bluegrass pastures the remnants of these tussocks are frequently represented by grass covered mounds a few inches in height. They almost invariably attract the attention of the traveler entering the region for the first time, but are taken for granted by the inhabitants, who usually explain their presence as being due to the trampling of livestock. [nt]

Mentioned: 1.

Victory Dance (Wakdjé Wacira) -- a dance performed several times during the elaborate ceremonies that attend upon the capture of an enemy head or scalp. Initially the head is left just outside the village. The young men rush out and count coup on it while calling out their own names. Then the man to whom the head is to be given erects a pole, and the head is hung from it. After the people have been told what ceremonial dress they should wear, they assemble for the dance. Then the entire warparty assembles and dances around the pole, with the man who has obtained the first war honor leading the procession. [nt] Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4.

wackejâ -- the Hotcâk term for the poplar or aspen (wackéra) tree. [nt] It is the name as well of a great and beautiful Spiritland forest. Mentioned: 1, 2.

Wagisga -- the -ga indicates a personal name. The word wagis means "to dish up," so that the name would mean, "He who Dishes Up." [nt 1] Such a name would be appropriate to the host of a rite. The name may also be a compound from wa, "corn," and gis, "round," so that the name meant "Round Corn." [nt 2]

waikâ -- In their oral tradition, the Hotcâgara draw a distinction that might bring to mind the Western distinction between myth and legend, but which is in fact significantly different. This is the distinction between a waikâ and a worak. The waikâ is a sacred story about spirits set in the primordial past, whose ending is always a happy one. Such stories can be told only during the winter season, or more precisely, when the snakes are no longer dwelling above ground. Those who tell a waikâ when serpents ply the earth risk not only the wrath of the people, but supernatural retribution. The spirit of the waikâ can transform itself into a snake (wak'â) and strike dead those who dare to contravene the sacred strictures. However, if a sacred feast falls during the reign of the serpents, any waikâ that is integral to the rite can be told by the appropriate priest. [nt] For stories that exemplify the categories of waikâ or worak, see the Table of Contents under Waikâ Stories and Worak Stories.

waisgap, waiskáp -- a kind of bread said to have been introduced by the French, which at the turn of the century was fried. It may once have been prepared somewhat differently. [nt 1] Ca. 1876 or earlier, bread was described as being "wheat flat cakes," or waiiskáp pareparétcera in Hotcâk. Buckwheat bread was called "black flour cake" (waiskápseptútc). Cf. the Hotcâk word for barley, waiïkápsintcsarétc. [nt 2]

Wak'aitcû (wak'â-hi-tcû) -- "Having a Holy Tooth," from wak'â, "holy," hi, "tooth," and tcû, "to possess." [nt]

wâkdocewe -- physicians who treat ordinary diseases and injuries. The most difficult cases were treated by people called wákâtcâk, "holy." They were considered to have obtained their powers -- which could be used for good or ill -- from the spirits particularly in control over disease (see Disease Giver and Waterspirits). [nt 1] From wâk, "man," do, "big, old," and cewe, "spiritual power": "a man with great [or ancient] spiritual power." [nt 2]

wâkráregi -- literally, "Real Men," by which is meant warriors.

wampum (Hotcâk wôrucíkera) -- shells or beads usually strung into necklaces whose beauty and rarity made them akin to gold in European culture and therefore a medium of exchange. Cf. Hotcâk wanapína, "necklace (of beads)," and wórusuksíkera, "fine, white wampum." [nt]

Wanághadajáhira (< Wanághi-Hadajáhira) -- "Ghost Lighting," the full set of rites from the beginning of the Four Slumbers through the actual burial. These rites are designed in part to illuminate the path to Spiritland for the ghost (wanâghi) of the deceased. [nt]

wanâghi -- "spirit, ghost." Compare: nâghirak, "soul, vital principle"; nâxira, "soul," whose conceptual affinities can be seen in nâxiragera, "reflection." [nt]

The War Controllers (Wonâghire Hirukóno) -- spirits who are most particularly vested with war powers [nt], among whose number are Great Black Hawk, Morning Star, Disease Giver, etc. Mentioned: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

war honors (wâk-honâk) -- The term is from wâk, "man," and honâk, "to count coup". [nt 1] Thus a war honor was "to touch (count coup on) a man." There are four war honors: the fourth and last belongs to the third man to touch a slain enemy, the third war honor belongs to the second man to touch him, the second belongs to the man who killed the enemy, and the highest war honor belongs to the man who first touches the body of the slain man. The winner of the first war honor, who is called Sara Hinîk, "Son of the Warbundle" [see 1], is given a prize of a shell (wampum) necklace, which he always gives to one of his older sisters, who parades around the village with it. [examples: 1; see also: 2] The holder of the first war honor is furthermore allowed to smoke the pipe first when he arrives home. [nt 2] For the great danger attached to being the first one to reach the body of a slain enemy, see Homer's Iliad. The first one to reach the body would have taken the head or scalp, which further enhances the prestige of the accomplishment.

warugháp (warbundle) -- a bundle wrapped in leather containing many wákâtcâk items, often the preserved remains of various animals as well as miniature models of weapons or other instruments of power. The sacred power thus contained in the warbundle is designed to influence the outcome of battle. From waru + ghap. Ghap means, "to skin, peel, tear up, scorch"; waru is possibly from waro, "to hang." The word warugháp also means "scalp." [nt] See the following examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

waxop'ini -- Spirits proper as opposed to ghosts (wanâghi). Many spirits are typically of the animistic mold, dwelling within natural objects (see Rock Spirits, Tree Spirits, etc.). Many are the supernatural chief of species of animals (see Crane, Owl, Bear, Wolf). Some are varieties of supernatural animals (see Thunderbirds, Waterspirits). Others, like the Meteor Spirit, have powers transcending the natural phenomena with which they are associated. Many others are true gods with multifaceted powers connected in complex ways to natural phenomena and resembling in their essential attributes the gods of ancient Greece or modern India (see Bluehorn, Earthmaker, Earth, Herok'a). Still others might be described as demigods (for which see The Sons of Earthmaker).

Wazûka -- "He who is Dressed in Something," from the verb wazû, "to dress in." [nt] On the other hand, the name also means "Marten."

white cedar -- see arbor vitæ.

Wiha(ga) -- an ordinal name given to the second daughter. Inasmuch as all second daughters are named Wiha(ga), the name is often used in mythology to disguise the identity of the character that bears the name. [nt] Examples: 1, 2, 3.

Winaxí -- a term given in just one source as another word for "Thunderbirds." [nt] Perhaps from naxgi, "to bite." [nt]

worak -- The worak is a story about human beings set in recent times, and it often has a tragic ending. It may be told at any time of the year. [nt] For stories that exemplify the categories of waikâ or worak, see the Table of Contents.

yûgi-wi (or hûgi-wi) -- Hotcâk for a queen or princess, and meaning literally, "leader-woman." It derives from hûge, "leader," and wi, an old term for a woman. [nt]

Zaganâc -- the Hotcâk name for the English. It derives from (le)s-Anglais, French for "the English," having first passed through the distorting medium of various Algonquian languages. Compare the Dakota, Caglaca, "British." Cf. sághánac ní-cudj, "rum" ("English red water"). See 1.

Zogega -- a personal name meaning "Pickerel".

Notes:

[Áksiá(ga)] -- 1. for birth order names, see Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 79. Kunu, Henu, Haga, Nangxi; Hinu, Wiha, Aksia. 2. Thomas Foster, Foster's Indian Record and Historical Data (Washington, D. C.: 1876-1877) vol. 1, #1, p. 3, col. 4.

[American Swallow-tail Kite] -- 1. The Birds of Louisiana, Bulletin 20, State of Louisiana Department of Conservation (New Orleans, Department of Conservation, 1931) 192-193; National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds, Eastern Edition. 2d revised edition. John Bull, John Farrand, jr., Amanda Wilson, and Lori Hogan, edd. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf (Chanticleer Press), 1994) 420-421, plate 317; National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds, Eastern Edition. 2d revised edition. John Bull, John Farrand, jr., Amanda Wilson, and Lori Hogan, edd. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf (Chanticleer Press), 1994) 420-421, plate 317. 2. John James Audubon, The Birds of America (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1937). The illustration is an Audubon painting (via Adobe Photoshop) form page 72 of his book. 3. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds, 421.

[arbor vitæ] -- E. G. Cheyney, What Tree is That? (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1934) 26-27.

[calendar stick] -- Robert H. Merrill, "The Calendar Stick of Tshi-zun-hau-kau," Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bulletin 24 (Oct., 1945): 1-11.

[Cranes] -- The illustration is from John James Audubon, The Birds of America (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1937) 261.

[cûk-hit'enakun] -- Mary Carolyn Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago: An Analysis and Reference Grammar of the Radin Lexical File (Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, December 14, 1968 [69-14,947]) 159, sv cûk; 399, sv hit'e.

[Curlew] -- The Birds of Louisiana, Bulletin 20, State of Louisiana Department of Conservation (New Orleans, Department of Conservation, 1931) 269-271. The illustration (via Adobe Photoshop) is of a drawing on page 270 of this book.

[death dance] -- Paul Radin, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," [unpublished] Winnebago Notebooks (American Philosophical Society Library) #37, p. 17, note. Walter James Hoffman, The Menominee Indians, in the Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1892-1893 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896) 14:25.

[dotcâhûka] -- Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 109.

[Gicoknuxgiga] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 163, sv cox; 349, sv nûx.

[girigirisege] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 299, sv kiri.

[Gwo] -- Paul Radin, The Culture of the Winnebago: As Described by Themselves. Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1: 100 nt 38.

[Haga] -- 1. for birth order names, see Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 79. Kunu, Henu, Haga, Nangxi; Hinu, Wiha, Aksia. 2. Thomas Foster, Foster's Indian Record and Historical Data (Washington, D. C.: 1876-1877) vol. 1, #1, p. 3, col. 4.

[he] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 248, sv he; James Owen Dorsey and John R. Swinton, A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, in Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1912) 307, sv "louse" (Biloxi); 336, sv "louse" (Ofo).

[Hehehiá] -- Charles N. Houghton, "The Orphan who Conquered Death," in Paul Radin, [unpublished] Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 70, p. 36, sentence 254 (interlinear phonetic text).

[hetcgenîk] -- 1. Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 249, sv hetcgenîk; 2. Ibid., 248, sv he.

[higixara] -- Paul Radin, The Evolution of an American Indian Prose Epic. A Study in Comparative Literature, Part I (Basil: Ethnographical Museum, Basil Switzerland, 1954) 169.

[Hîtcoga] -- Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 193, 205.

[ho] -- 1. Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 259, sv ho; Dorsey and Swinton, A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, 323, sv ho (Ofo), 303 sv "fish"; Stephen Return Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1890]) 151, sv ho; John P. Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1902]) sv "fish"; Rev. Eugene Buechel, A Dictionary of the Teton Dakota Sioux Language (Pine Ridge: Red Cloud Indian School, 1955?) 180, sv hoghâ´; 2. Riggs, Dakota-English Dictionary, 151, sv ho; also followed by Buechel, Dictionary of Teton Dakota, 180, sv ho. Francis LaFlesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 109 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932) 67, ssvv hu, hú-ca-gi, hótô; 63, sv. hó-ca-gi. James H. Howard, The Ponca Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press: 1995 [1965]) 134. Alice C. Fletcher and Francis La Flesche, The Omaha Tribe, 2 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press: 1992 [1911]) 102. Dorsey and Swinton, A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, 323, sv hóhe.

[Hok'ixére Waci] -- Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 331-335.

[Honâra Djobohôra] -- Paul Radin, The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves (Baltimore: Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1, 1949) 100 nt 42.

[hot'û] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 402, sv t'û.

[jack pine] -- Cheyney, What Tree is That? 10-11.

[korotc] -- W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 219, nt 29.

[Lipkind] -- William Lipkind, Winnebago Grammar (New York: King's Crown Press, ) 55-56 (§98).

[Mânuserek] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 315, sv mâ.

[ordinal names] -- for birth order names, see Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 79. Kunu, Henu, Haga, Nangxi; Hinu, Wiha, Aksia.

[Quail] -- John James Audubon, The Birds of America (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1937). The illustration is a detail from an Audubon painting (via Adobe Photoshop) on page 76 of his book.

[ruhîtc] -- Radin, The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves, 99-100 nt 33.

[Tca-si-gû-nâx-ga] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 176, sv tca; 231, gû; 340, sv nâx; 391, sv si.

[t'ijâ] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 399, sv t'e; 254, sv hijâ.

[tussock] -- David F. Costello, "Tussock Meadows in Southeastern Wisconsin," Botanical Gazette, 97, #3 (Mar., 1936): 610-648 [610].

[Û´sge] -- Paul Radin, The Culture of the Winnebago: As Described by Themselves. Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1: 102 nt 71.

[Victory Dance] -- Radin, Winnebago Tribe, 331.

[wackejâ] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 405, sv wacge; Thomas Foster, Foster's Indian Record and Historical Data (Washington, D. C.: 1876-1877) vol. 1, #2: p. 4, coll. 3-4 ("abandon" - "beckon").

[Wagisga] -- 1. Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 226 sv gis; 2. Ibid., 404 sv wa, 225 sv gis.

[waikâ] -- Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 15-16; Walter W. Funmaker, The Bear in Winnebago Culture: A Study in Cosmology and Society (Master Thesis, University of Minnesota: June, 1974 [MnU-M 74-29]) 5; Walter Funmaker, The Winnebago Black Bear Subclan: a Defended Culture (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota: December, 1986 [MnU-D 86-361]]) 31-32, 102-103.

[waisgap] -- 1. Radin, The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves, 102 nt 66. 2. Thomas Foster, Foster's Indian Record and Historical Data (Washington, D. C.: 1876-1877) vol. 1, #1: p. 4, coll. 4, sv. "barley"; vol. 1, #3: p. 4, coll. 3, sv. "bread."

[Wak'aitcû] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 409, sv wak'â; 251, sv hi; 199, sv tcû.

[wâkdocewe] -- 1. Paul Radin, "The Man who Brought His Wife back from Spiritland," The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves (Baltimore: Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1, 1949) 58 ntt. 4-5. 2. Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 416, s.v. wâk.

[wampum] -- Thomas Foster, Foster's Indian Record and Historical Data (Washington, D. C.: 1876-1877) vol. 1, #2: p. 4, coll. 4, sv "bead."

[Wanághadajáhira] -- Radin, The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves, 58, nt. 6.

[wanâghi] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 334, s.v. nâghi/nâxi.

[War Controllers] -- Paul Radin, "The Two Friends Who Became Reincarnated: The Origin of the Four Nights Wake," The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves (Baltimore: Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1, 1949) 24, ss. 42-43.

[war honors] -- 1. Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 416, s.v.wâk, 261, s.v. honâk; 2. Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 119 nt 4.

[worak] -- Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 15-16; Funmaker, The Bear in Winnebago Culture, 5; Funmaker, The Winnebago Black Bear Subclan, 31-32, 102-103.

[warughap] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 234, sv ghap; 411, sv waro.

[Wazûka] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 414, sv wazû.

[white cedar] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 414, sv wazi; 354, sv paras.

[Winaxí] -- 1. Foster, Foster's Indian Record, vol. 1, #2,: p. 3, col.3, quoting the interpreter Menaige (ca. 1850). 2. Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 340, sv nâxgi.

[Wo] -- Charles N. Houghton, "The Orphan who Conquered Death," in Paul Radin, [unpublished] Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 70, 13 nt (interlinear phonetic text).

[yûgiwi] -- Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago, 265 sv hûk-.